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■ Coastal landscapes
Low-lying coasts, at elevations below 10 m above mean sea level, are literally at the front line of the climate emergency. They are threatened by shoreline erosion, marine flooding and groundwater and soil salinisation, associated with both progressive sea-level rise (global mean of +0.84 m by 2100 and rises of 10–20 mm/year under extreme scenarios) and with an increased frequency of extreme sea-level events. These hazards mean that those living and working at the coast face high levels of coastal exposure and vulnerability which are almost certain to increase over time.
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